Click to show the outline
Based on Istio version 1.13, this article will present the following.
- What is the sidecar pattern and what advantages does it have?
- How are the sidecar injections done in Istio?
- How does the sidecar proxy do transparent traffic intercepting?
- How is the traffic routed to upstream?
The figure below shows how the productpage service requests access to http://reviews.default.svc.cluster.local:9080/ and how the sidecar proxy inside the reviews service does traffic blocking and routing forwarding when traffic goes inside the reviews service.
At the beginning of the first step, the sidecar in the productpage pod has selected a pod of the reviews service to be requested via EDS, knows its IP address, and sends a TCP connection request.
There are three versions of the reviews service, each with an instance, and the sidecar work steps in the three versions are similar, as illustrated below only by the sidecar traffic forwarding step in one of the Pods.
Sidecar pattern
Dividing the functionality of an application into separate processes running in the same minimal scheduling unit (e.g. Pod in Kubernetes) can be considered sidecar mode. As shown in the figure below, the sidecar pattern allows you to add more features next to your application without additional third-party component configuration or modifications to the application code.
The Sidecar application is loosely coupled to the main application. It can shield the differences between different programming languages and unify the functions of microservices such as observability, monitoring, logging, configuration, circuit breaker, etc.
Advantages of using the Sidecar pattern
When deploying a service mesh using the sidecar model, there is no need to run an agent on the node, but multiple copies of the same sidecar will run in the cluster. In the sidecar deployment model, a companion container (such as Envoy or MOSN) is deployed next to each application’s container, which is called a sidecar container. The sidecar takes overall traffic in and out of the application container. In Kubernetes’ Pod, a sidecar container is injected next to the original application container, and the two containers share storage, networking, and other resources.
Due to its unique deployment architecture, the sidecar model offers the following advantages.
- Abstracting functions unrelated to application business logic into a common infrastructure reduces the complexity of microservice code.
- Reduce code duplication in microservices architectures because it is no longer necessary to write the same third-party component profiles and code.
- The sidecar can be independently upgraded to reduce the coupling of application code to the underlying platform.
iptables manipulation analysis
In order to view the iptables configuration, we need to nsenter the sidecar container using the root user to view it, because kubectl cannot use privileged mode to remotely manipulate the docker container, so we need to log on to the host where the productpage pod is located.
If you use Kubernetes deployed by minikube, you can log directly into the minikube’s virtual machine and switch to root. View the iptables configuration that lists all the rules for the NAT (Network Address Translation) table because the mode for redirecting inbound traffic to the sidecar is REDIRECT in the parameters passed to the istio-iptables when the Init container is selected for the startup, so there will only be NAT table specifications in the iptables and mangle table configurations if TPROXY is selected. See the iptables command for detailed usage.
We only look at the iptables rules related to productpage below.
# login to minikube, change user to root
$ minikube ssh
$ sudo -i
# See the processes in the productpage pod's istio-proxy container
$ docker top `docker ps|grep "istio-proxy_productpage"|cut -d " " -f1`
UID PID PPID C STIME TTY TIME CMD
1337 10576 10517 0 08:09 ? 00:00:07 /usr/local/bin/pilot-agent proxy sidecar --domain default.svc.cluster.local --configPath /etc/istio/proxy --binaryPath /usr/local/bin/envoy --serviceCluster productpage.default --drainDuration 45s --parentShutdownDuration 1m0s --discoveryAddress istiod.istio-system.svc:15012 --zipkinAddress zipkin.istio-system:9411 --proxyLogLevel=warning --proxyComponentLogLevel=misc:error --connectTimeout 10s --proxyAdminPort 15000 --concurrency 2 --controlPlaneAuthPolicy NONE --dnsRefreshRate 300s --statusPort 15020 --trust-domain=cluster.local --controlPlaneBootstrap=false
1337 10660 10576 0 08:09 ? 00:00:33 /usr/local/bin/envoy -c /etc/istio/proxy/envoy-rev0.json --restart-epoch 0 --drain-time-s 45 --parent-shutdown-time-s 60 --service-cluster productpage.default --service-node sidecar~172.17.0.16~productpage-v1-7f44c4d57c-ksf9b.default~default.svc.cluster.local --max-obj-name-len 189 --local-address-ip-version v4 --log-format [Envoy (Epoch 0)] [%Y-%m-%d %T.%e][%t][%l][%n] %v -l warning --component-log-level misc:error --concurrency 2
# Enter the nsenter into the namespace of the sidecar container (any of the above is ok)
$ nsenter -n --target 10660
View the process’s iptables rule chain under its namespace.
# View the details of the rule configuration in the NAT table.
$ iptables -t nat -L -v
# PREROUTING chain: Used for Destination Address Translation (DNAT) to jump all incoming TCP traffic to the ISTIO_INBOUND chain.
Chain PREROUTING (policy ACCEPT 2701 packets, 162K bytes)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
2701 162K ISTIO_INBOUND tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere
# INPUT chain: Processes incoming packets and non-TCP traffic will continue on the OUTPUT chain.
Chain INPUT (policy ACCEPT 2701 packets, 162K bytes)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
# OUTPUT chain: jumps all outbound packets to the ISTIO_OUTPUT chain.
Chain OUTPUT (policy ACCEPT 79 packets, 6761 bytes)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
15 900 ISTIO_OUTPUT tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere
# POSTROUTING CHAIN: All packets must first enter the POSTROUTING chain when they leave the network card, and the kernel determines whether they need to be forwarded out according to the packet destination.
Chain POSTROUTING (policy ACCEPT 79 packets, 6761 bytes)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
# ISTIO_INBOUND CHAIN: Redirects all inbound traffic to the ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT chain, except for traffic destined for ports 15090 (used by Prometheus) and 15020 (used by Ingress gateway for Pilot health checks), and traffic sent to these two ports will return to the call point of the iptables rule chain, the successor POSTROUTING to the INPUT chain.
Chain ISTIO_INBOUND (1 references)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 RETURN tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:ssh
2 120 RETURN tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:15090
2699 162K RETURN tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere tcp dpt:15020
0 0 ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere
# ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT chain: jumps all inbound traffic to the local 15006 port, thus successfully blocking traffic to the sidecar.
Chain ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT (3 references)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 REDIRECT tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere redir ports 15006
# ISTIO_OUTPUT chain: see the details bellow
Chain ISTIO_OUTPUT (1 references)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 RETURN all -- any lo 127.0.0.6 anywhere
0 0 ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT all -- any lo anywhere !localhost owner UID match 1337
0 0 RETURN all -- any lo anywhere anywhere ! owner UID match 1337
15 900 RETURN all -- any any anywhere anywhere owner UID match 1337
0 0 ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT all -- any lo anywhere !localhost owner GID match 1337
0 0 RETURN all -- any lo anywhere anywhere ! owner GID match 1337
0 0 RETURN all -- any any anywhere anywhere owner GID match 1337
0 0 RETURN all -- any any anywhere localhost
0 0 ISTIO_REDIRECT all -- any any anywhere anywhere
# ISTIO_REDIRECT chain: redirects all traffic to Sidecar (i.e. local) port 15001.
Chain ISTIO_REDIRECT (1 references)
pkts bytes target prot opt in out source destination
0 0 REDIRECT tcp -- any any anywhere anywhere redir ports 15001
The focus here is on the 9 rules in the ISTIO_OUTPUT chain. For ease of reading, I will show some of the above rules in the form of a table as follows.
| Rule | target | in | out | source | destination |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | RETURN | any | lo | 127.0.0.6 | anywhere |
| 2 | ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT | any | lo | anywhere | !localhost owner UID match 1337 |
| 3 | RETURN | any | lo | anywhere | anywhere !owner UID match 1337 |
| 4 | RETURN | any | any | anywhere | anywhere owner UID match 1337 |
| 5 | ISTIO_IN_REDIRECT | any | lo | anywhere | !localhost owner GID match 1337 |
| 6 | RETURN | any | lo | anywhere | anywhere !owner GID match 1337 |
| 7 | RETURN | any | any | anywhere | anywhere owner GID match 1337 |
| 8 | RETURN | any | any | anywhere | localhost |
| 9 | ISTIO_REDIRECT | any | any | anywhere | anywhere |
The following diagram shows the detailed flow of the ISTIO_ROUTE rule.
I will explain the purpose of each rule, corresponding to the steps and details in the illustration at the beginning of the article, in the order in which they appear. Where rules 5, 6, and 7 are extensions of the application of rules 2, 3, and 4 respectively (from UID to GID), which serve similar purposes and will be explained together. Note that the rules therein are executed in order, meaning that the rule with the next highest order will be used as the default. When the outbound NIC (out) is lo (local loopback address, loopback interface), it means that the destination of the traffic is the local Pod, and traffic sent from the Pod to the outside, will not go through this interface. Only rules 4, 7, 8, and 9 apply to all outbound traffic from the review Pod.
Rule 1
- Purpose: To pass through traffic sent by the Envoy proxy to the local application container, so that it bypasses the Envoy proxy and goes directly to the application container.
- Corresponds to steps 6 through 7 in the illustration.
- Details: This rule causes all requests from 127.0.0.6 (this IP address will be explained below) to jump out of the chain, return to the point of invocation of iptables (i.e. OUTPUT) and continue with the rest of the routing rules, i.e. the
POSTROUTINGrule, which sends traffic to an arbitrary destination, such as the application container within the local Pod. Without this rule, traffic from the Envoy proxy within the Pod to the Pod container will execute the next rule, rule 2, and the traffic will enter the Inbound Handler again, creating a dead loop. Putting this rule in the first place can avoid the problem of traffic dead-ending in the Inbound Handler.
Rule 2, 5
- Purpose: Handle inbound traffic (traffic inside the Pod) from the Envoy proxy, but not requests to the localhost, and forward it to the Envoy proxy’s Inbound Handler via a subsequent rule. This rule applies to scenarios where the Pod invokes its own IP address, i.e., traffic between services within the Pod.
- Details: If the destination of the traffic is not localhost and the packet is sent by 1337 UID (i.e. istio-proxy user, Envoy proxy), the traffic will be forwarded to Envoy’s Inbound Handler through
ISTIO_IN_REDIRECTeventually.
Rule 3, 6
- Purpose: To pass through the internal traffic of the application container within the Pod. This rule applies to traffic within the container. For example, access to Pod IP or localhost within a Pod.
- Corresponds to steps 6 through 7 in the illustration.
- Details: If the traffic is not sent by an Envoy user, then jump out of the chain and return to
OUTPUTto callPOSTROUTINGand go straight to the destination.
Rule 4, 7
- Purpose: To pass through outbound requests sent by Envoy proxy.
- Corresponds to steps 14 through 15 in the illustration.
- Details: If the request was made by the Envoy proxy, return
OUTPUTto continue invoking thePOSTROUTINGrule and eventually access the destination directly.
Rule 8
- Purpose: Passes requests from within the Pod to the localhost.
- Details: If the destination of the request is localhost, return
OUTPUTand callPOSTROUTINGto access localhost directly.
Rule 9
- Purpose: All other traffic will be forwarded to
ISTIO_REDIRECTafter finally reaching the Outbound Handler of Envoy proxy. - Corresponds to steps 10 through 11 in the illustration.
The above rule avoids dead loops in the iptables rules for Envoy proxy to application routing, and guarantees that traffic can be routed correctly to the Envoy proxy, and that real outbound requests can be made.
About RETURN target
You may notice that there are many RETURN targets in the above rules, which means that when this rule is specified, it jumps out of the rule chain, returns to the call point of iptables (in our case OUTPUT) and continues to execute the rest of the routing rules, in our case the POSTROUTING rule, which sends traffic to any destination address, you can think of This is intuitively understood as pass-through.
About the 127.0.0.6 IP address
The IP 127.0.0.6 is the default InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4 in Istio and is specified in the code of Istio. This is the IP address to which traffic is bound after entering the Envoy proxy, and serves to allow Outbound traffic to be re-sent to the application container in the Pod, i.e. Passthought, bypassing the Outbound Handler. this traffic is access to the Pod itself, and not real outbound traffic. See Istio Issue-29603 for more information on why this IP was chosen as the traffic passthrough.
The traffic routing process explained
Traffic routing is divided into two processes, Inbound and Outbound, which will be analyzed in detail for the reader below based on the example above and the configuration of the sidecar.
Understand Inbound Handler
The role of the Inbound handler is to pass traffic from the downstream blocked by iptables to the localhost and establish a connection to the application container within the Pod. Assuming the name of one of the Pods is reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2, run istioctl proxy-config listener reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2 --port 15006 to see which Listener is in that Pod.
ADDRESS PORT MATCH DESTINATION
0.0.0.0 15006 Addr: *:15006 Non-HTTP/Non-TCP
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: tls; App: istio-http/1.0,istio-http/1.1,istio-h2; Addr: 0.0.0.0/0 InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: raw_buffer; App: http/1.1,h2c; Addr: 0.0.0.0/0 InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: tls; App: TCP TLS; Addr: 0.0.0.0/0 InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: raw_buffer; Addr: 0.0.0.0/0 InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: tls; Addr: 0.0.0.0/0 InboundPassthroughClusterIpv4
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: tls; App: istio,istio-peer-exchange,istio-http/1.0,istio-http/1.1,istio-h2; Addr: *:9080 Cluster: inbound|9080||
0.0.0.0 15006 Trans: raw_buffer; Addr: *:9080 Cluster: inbound|9080||
The following lists the meanings of the fields in the above output.
- ADDRESS: downstream address
- PORT: The port the Envoy listener is listening on
- MATCH: The transport protocol used by the request or the matching downstream address
- DESTINATION: Route destination
The Iptables in the reviews Pod intercept inbound traffic to port 15006, and from the above output we can see that Envoy’s Inbound Handler is listening on port 15006, and requests to port 9080 destined for any IP will be routed to the inbound|9080|| Cluster.
As you can see in the last two rows of the Pod’s Listener list, the Listener for 0.0.0.0:15006/TCP (whose actual name is virtualInbound) listens for all Inbound traffic, which contains matching rules, and traffic to port 9080 from any IP will be routed. If you want to see the detailed configuration of this Listener in Json format, you can execute the istioctl proxy-config listeners reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2 --port 15006 -o json command. You will get an output similar to the following.
[
/*omit*/
{
"name": "virtualInbound",
"address": {
"socketAddress": {
"address": "0.0.0.0",
"portValue": 15006
}
},
"filterChains": [
/*omit*/
{
"filterChainMatch": {
"destinationPort": 9080,
"transportProtocol": "tls",
"applicationProtocols": [
"istio",
"istio-peer-exchange",
"istio-http/1.0",
"istio-http/1.1",
"istio-h2"
]
},
"filters": [
/*omit*/
{
"name": "envoy.filters.network.http_connection_manager",
"typedConfig": {
"@type": "type.googleapis.com/envoy.extensions.filters.network.http_connection_manager.v3.HttpConnectionManager",
"statPrefix": "inbound_0.0.0.0_9080",
"routeConfig": {
"name": "inbound|9080||",
"virtualHosts": [
{
"name": "inbound|http|9080",
"domains": [
"*"
],
"routes": [
{
"name": "default",
"match": {
"prefix": "/"
},
"route": {
"cluster": "inbound|9080||",
"timeout": "0s",
"maxStreamDuration": {
"maxStreamDuration": "0s",
"grpcTimeoutHeaderMax": "0s"
}
},
"decorator": {
"operation": "reviews.default.svc.cluster.local:9080/*"
}
}
]
}
],
"validateClusters": false
},
/*omit*/
}
}
],
/*omit*/
],
"listenerFilters": [
/*omit*/
],
"listenerFiltersTimeout": "0s",
"continueOnListenerFiltersTimeout": true,
"trafficDirection": "INBOUND"
}
]
Since the Inbound Handler traffic routes traffic from any address to this Pod port 9080 to the inbound|9080|| Cluster, let’s run istioctl pc cluster reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2 --port 9080 --direction inbound -o json to see the Cluster configuration and you will get something like the following output.
[
{
"name": "inbound|9080||",
"type": "ORIGINAL_DST",
"connectTimeout": "10s",
"lbPolicy": "CLUSTER_PROVIDED",
"circuitBreakers": {
"thresholds": [
{
"maxConnections": 4294967295,
"maxPendingRequests": 4294967295,
"maxRequests": 4294967295,
"maxRetries": 4294967295,
"trackRemaining": true
}
]
},
"cleanupInterval": "60s",
"upstreamBindConfig": {
"sourceAddress": {
"address": "127.0.0.6",
"portValue": 0
}
},
"metadata": {
"filterMetadata": {
"istio": {
"services": [
{
"host": "reviews.default.svc.cluster.local",
"name": "reviews",
"namespace": "default"
}
]
}
}
}
}
]
We see that the TYPE is ORIGINAL_DST, which sends the traffic to the original destination address (Pod IP), because the original destination address is the current Pod, you should also notice that the value of upstreamBindConfig.sourceAddress.address is rewritten to 127.0.0.6, and for Pod This echoes the first rule in the iptables ISTIO_OUTPUT the chain above, according to which traffic will be passed through to the application container inside the Pod.
Understand Outbound Handler
Because reviews send an HTTP request to the ratings service at http://ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080/, the role of the Outbound handler is to intercept traffic from the local application to which iptables has intercepted, and determine how to route it to the upstream via the sidecar.
Requests from application containers are Outbound traffic, intercepted by iptables and transferred to the Outbound handler for processing, which then passes through the virtualOutbound Listener, the 0.0.0.0_9080 Listener, and then finds the upstream cluster via Route 9080, which in turn finds the Endpoint via EDS to perform the routing action.
Route ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080
reviews requests the ratings service and runs istioctl proxy-config routes reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2 --name 9080 -o json. View the route configuration because the sidecar matches VirtualHost based on domains in the HTTP header, so only ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080 is listed below for this VirtualHost.
[{
{
"name": "ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080",
"domains": [
"ratings.default.svc.cluster.local",
"ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080",
"ratings",
"ratings:9080",
"ratings.default.svc.cluster",
"ratings.default.svc.cluster:9080",
"ratings.default.svc",
"ratings.default.svc:9080",
"ratings.default",
"ratings.default:9080",
"10.98.49.62",
"10.98.49.62:9080"
],
"routes": [
{
"name": "default",
"match": {
"prefix": "/"
},
"route": {
"cluster": "outbound|9080||ratings.default.svc.cluster.local",
"timeout": "0s",
"retryPolicy": {
"retryOn": "connect-failure,refused-stream,unavailable,cancelled,resource-exhausted,retriable-status-codes",
"numRetries": 2,
"retryHostPredicate": [
{
"name": "envoy.retry_host_predicates.previous_hosts"
}
],
"hostSelectionRetryMaxAttempts": "5",
"retriableStatusCodes": [
503
]
},
"maxGrpcTimeout": "0s"
},
"decorator": {
"operation": "ratings.default.svc.cluster.local:9080/*"
}
}
]
},
..]
From this VirtualHost configuration, you can see routing traffic to the cluster outbound|9080||ratings.default.svc.cluster.local.
Endpoint outbound|9080||ratings.default.svc.cluster.local
Running istioctl proxy-config endpoint reviews-v1-545db77b95-jkgv2 --port 9080 -o json --cluster "outbound|9080||ratings.default.svc.cluster.local" to view the Endpoint configuration, the results are as follows.
{
"clusterName": "outbound|9080||ratings.default.svc.cluster.local",
"endpoints": [
{
"locality": {
},
"lbEndpoints": [
{
"endpoint": {
"address": {
"socketAddress": {
"address": "172.33.100.2",
"portValue": 9080
}
}
},
"metadata": {
"filterMetadata": {
"istio": {
"uid": "kubernetes://ratings-v1-8558d4458d-ns6lk.default"
}
}
}
}
]
}
]
}
We see that the endpoint address is 10.4.1.12. In fact, the Endpoint can be one or more, and the sidecar will select the appropriate Endpoint to route based on certain rules. At this point the review Pod has found the Endpoint for its upstream service rating.
Summary
This article uses the bookinfo example provided by Istio to guide readers through the implementation details behind the sidecar injection, iptables transparent traffic intercepting, and traffic routing in the sidecar. The sidecar mode and traffic transparent intercepting are the features and basic functions of Istio service mesh, understanding the process behind this function and the implementation details will help you understand the principle of service mesh and the content in the later chapters of the Istio Handbook, so I hope readers can try it from scratch in their own environment to deepen their understanding.
Using iptables for traffic intercepting is just one of the ways to do traffic intercepting in the data plane of a service mesh, and there are many more traffic intercepting scenarios, quoted below from the description of the traffic intercepting section given in the MOSN official network of the cloud-native network proxy.
Problems with using iptables for traffic intercepting
Currently, Istio uses iptables for transparent intercepting and there are three main problems.
- The need to use the conntrack module for connection tracking, in the case of a large number of connections, will cause a large consumption and may cause the track table to be full, in order to avoid this problem, the industry has a practice of closing conntrack.
- iptables is a common module with global effect and cannot explicitly prohibit associated changes, which is less controllable.
- iptables redirect traffic is essentially exchanging data via a loopback. The outbound traffic will traverse the protocol stack twice and lose forwarding performance in a large concurrency scenario.
Several of the above problems are not present in all scenarios, let’s say some scenarios where the number of connections is not large and the NAT table is not used, iptables is a simple solution that meets the requirements. In order to adapt to a wider range of scenarios, transparent intercepting needs to address all three of these issues.
Transparent intercepting optimization
In order to optimize the performance of transparent traffic intercepting in Istio, the following solutions have been proposed by the industry.
Traffic intercepting with eBPF using the Merbridge Open Source Project
Merbridge is a plug-in that leverages eBPF to accelerate the Istio service mesh, which was open sourced by DaoCloud in early 2022. Using Merbridge can optimize network performance in the data plane to some extent.
Merbridge leverages the sockops and redir capabilities of eBPF to transfer packets directly from inbound sockets to outbound sockets. eBPF provides the bpf_msg_redirect_hash function to forward application packets directly.
Handling inbound traffic with tproxy
tproxy can be used for redirection of inbound traffic without changing the destination IP/port in the packet, without performing connection tracking, and without the problem of conntrack modules creating a large number of connections. Restricted to the kernel version, tproxy’s application to outbound is flawed. Istio currently supports handling inbound traffic via tproxy.
Use hook connect to handle outbound traffic
In order to adapt to more application scenarios, the outbound direction is implemented by hook connect, which is implemented as follows.
Whichever transparent intercepting scheme is used, the problem of obtaining the real destination IP/port needs to be solved, using the iptables scheme through getsockopt, tproxy can read the destination address directly, by modifying the call interface, hook connect scheme reads in a similar way to tproxy.
After the transparent intercepting, the sockmap can shorten the packet traversal path and improve forwarding performance in the outbound direction, provided that the kernel version meets the requirements (4.16 and above).
References
- Debugging Envoy and Istiod - istio.io
- Demystifying Istio’s Sidecar Injection Model - istio.io
- The traffic intercepting solution when MOSN is used as a sidecar - mosn.io
Last updated on Nov 21, 2024